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Project Gutenberg's Home Geography For Primary Grades, by C. C. Long

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Title: Home Geography For Primary Grades

Author: C. C. Long

Release Date: May 1, 2004 [EBook #12228]

Language: English

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*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK HOME GEOGRAPHY FOR PRIMARY GRADES ***

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HOME GEOGRAPHY

FOR

PRIMARY GRADES

BY

C. C. LONG, Ph.D.

AUTHOR OF NEW LANGUAGE LESSONS, LESSONS IN ENGLISH, ETC.

CONTENTS.

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TO THE TEACHER

XXIII.--THE RIVER (POEM)

I.--POSITION

XXIV.--A MAP

II.--HOW THE SUN SHOWS DIRECTION

XXV.--FORMS OF LAND AND WATER

III.--HOW THE STARS SHOW

XXVI.--MORE ABOUT FORMS OF

DIRECTION

LAND AND WATER

IV.--HOW THE COMPASS SHOWS

XXVII.--A TRIP TO THE HIGHLANDS

DIRECTION

XXVIII.--SPRING (POEM)

V.--QUESTIONS ON DIRECTION

XXIX.--USEFUL VEGETABLES

VI.--WHAT THE WINDS BRING (POEM)

XXX.--USEFUL GRAINS

VII.--HOW TO TELL DISTANCE

XXXI.--FRUITS

VIII.--PICTURES AND PLANS

XXXII.--USEFUL PLANTS

IX.--WRITTEN EXERCISE

XXXIII.--FOREST TREES

X.--GOD MADE THEM ALL (POEM)

XXXIV.--FLOWERS

XI.--PLAINS

XXXV.--WHAT IS NECESSARY TO

XII.--HILLS, MOUNTAINS, VALLEYS

MAKE PLANTS GROW

XIII.--RAIN, WIND, AND SNOW

XXXVI.--SUMMER RAIN (POEM)

XIV.--HOW WATER IS CHANGED TO

XXXVII.--THE PARTS OF ANIMALS

VAPOR

XXXVIII.--THE COVERING OF

XV.--HOW VAPOR IS CHANGED TO

ANIMALS

WATER

XXXIX.--USES OF ANIMALS

XVI.--DEW, CLOUDS, AND RAIN

XL.--THE SIGNS OF THE SEASONS

XVII.--THE FAIRY ARTIST (POEM)

(POEM)

XVIII.--HOW RIVERS ARE MADE

XLI.--THINGS FOUND IN THE EARTH

XIX.--MORE ABOUT RIVERS

XLII.--MORE ABOUT THINGS FOUND

IN THE EARTH

XX.--THE BROOK (POEM)

XLIII.--HOW PEOPLE LIVE, AND WHAT

XXI.--WORK OF FLOWING RIVERS

THEY ARE DOING

XXII.--WATERDROP'S STORY

XLIV.--MORE ABOUT WHAT PEOPLE

ARE DOING

XLV.--A REVIEW LESSON

TO THE TEACHER.

Geography may be divided into the geography of the home and the geography of the world at large. A knowledge of the home must be obtained by direct observation; of the rest of the world, through the imagination assisted by information. Ideas acquired by direct observation form a basis for imagining www.gutenberg.org/files/12228/12228-h/12228-h.htm

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those things which are distant and unknown.

The first work, then, in geographical instruction, is

to study that small part of the earth's surface lying

just at our doors. All around are illustrations of

lake and river, upland and lowland, slope and

valley. These forms must be actually observed by

the pupil, mental pictures obtained, in order that he

may be enabled to build up in his mind other

mental pictures of similar unseen forms. The hill

that he climbs each day may, by an appeal to his

imagination, represent to him the lofty Andes or

the Alps. From the meadow, or the bit of level land

near the door, may be developed a notion of plain and prairie. The little stream that flows past the schoolhouse door, or even one formed by the sudden shower, may speak to him of the Mississippi, the Amazon, or the Rhine. Similarly, the idea of sea or ocean may be deduced from that of pond or lake. Thus, after the pupil has acquired elementary ideas by actual perception, the imagination can use them in constructing, on a larger scale, mental pictures of similar objects outside the bounds of his own experience and observation.

To effect this, the teacher should visit with her class places where the simpler geographical features in miniature may be observed. If the school is in the city, pupils may be taken to the parks for this purpose.

If out-of-door study be impossible, they may be induced to recall objects which they have seen on their way to school or on short excursions in the neighborhood. In the case of children who have little opportunity for observing nature, a drawing, a photograph, or a model will be helpful in giving them a proper idea of the matter. It must not be forgotten, however, that actual observation by the pupil is necessary to seeing clearly and intelligently.

Vegetable and animal life are essential features of the geography of the world, and considerable time should be given to the study of those within the observation of the pupils. Information concerning plants may be gained by outdoor study; also by planting seeds in boxes and having pupils carefully watch their germination and growth.

Pupils should be encouraged to make collections of the minerals and rocks of their region. These should be classified and arranged for use, not for show.

The lessons about rain, snow, dew, etc., should be given at appropriate times. A wet day will suggest a lesson on rain, a snowy day a lesson about snow. No attempt should be made at "science" teaching, so-called. All that should be sought is to get the pupil thoughtfully to observe, and thus to awaken his interest in the world about him.

Lessons should be conversational in form, which is always a most pleasing style for children, as it is the most natural. The work of the teacher is to awaken and stimulate interest, not to impart information. The attention of the child should be directed to what lies around him. He must observe, and think, and express his thoughts. Nor should his observations be confined to the school and school hours. He should be encouraged to obtain his information by his own searching, without guidance, and report the results.

The development of clear mental pictures is stimulated by expression. "Expression is the test of the pupil's knowledge." Hence, the child should be required to reproduce what he has learned. He may do this by modeling, drawing, and oral and written description. These are placed in the order which should be followed in the training of children.

The inclination of nearly every child left to his own mode of development is to make, in some plastic material, what he has seen. Trying to fashion the hills and valleys with which he is familiar excites his interest, and leads to closer observation. This may be followed by the reproduction in molder's sand, or in clay, of the forms seen in pictures or learned from description. Definitions of the various forms, hill, mountain, valley, island, etc., should be developed as they are molded. The memorizing of definitions should seldom be required, and should never be made a test of the pupil's knowledge.

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the child how to see well. It often enables him to reveal what could not well be expressed in words. He also becomes ready and rapid in the use of the pencil when he has ideas to put on paper. Only reasonable accuracy should be required. Practice in making fine pictures should not be the end sought, but the development of geographical ideas.

Finally, pupils should be led to give clear and connected statements of what has been learned. For a language lesson, a written description may be prepared, illustrated by a drawing.

Home Geography.

LESSON I.

POSITION.

Lay your hands upon your desk, side by side.

Which side shal we cal the right side? The left side?

Put your hands on the middle of your desk on the side farthest from you. That part is the

back of your desk.

Think which is the front of your desk. Put your hands on the front of your desk.

Who sits on your right hand? On your left? At the desk in front of you? At the desk behind

you?

Turn round. Who is on your right now? On your left? Before you? Behind you?

Turn again. Who is now on your right? On your left? Before you? Behind you?

NOTE.--Lead children to see that the terms right, left, front, and back are of little use in teling the position of places, and that some fixed standard of direction is necessary.

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LESSON II.

HOW THE SUN SHOWS DIRECTION.

If I should ask, "Which is the way to your home?" who could tel me what I mean?

You al know which way you must go to find your home, but if you should wish to go to a

place where you have never been, you would ask, perhaps, "Which way is it?"

THE WAY TO A PLACE IS CALLED DIRECTIO N.

The way to a place is caled direction. In order to find a place, we must know in what direction from us it lies, and we have names for directions, such as north, south, east, and west. We may know these directions by seeing where the sun is.

Did you ever see the sun rise? Point to the place where you saw the sun rise. The direction in which the sun seems to rise is caled the east.

Did you ever see the sun set? Point to where you saw the sun set. The direction in which the sun seems to set is caled the west. The west is just the opposite direction from east.

When do we see the sun rise? Where do we see the sun rise? What is the name of this

direction? When do we see the sun set? Where do we see it set? What is the name of this

direction? On which side of the schoolroom does the sun rise? On which side does it set?

Which is the east side of your desk? Which the west side?

When coming to school this morning, in what direction did you see the sun? If we walk so

that the morning sun shines in our faces, in what direction are we going? What direction is behind us?

Now that you know the east, you wil be able to find other directions in this way: Stretch out your arms so that your right hand points toward the east, and your left hand toward the west.

You are now facing the north. The direction behind you is the south.

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YO U ARE NO W FACING THE NO RTH.

Write the following on your slates:

The sun seems to rise toward the east, and set toward the west. The west is just the opposite direction from the east.

When my right hand is pointing to the east, and my left hand to the west, my face is toward the north and my back is toward the south.

ORAL EXERCISES.

Which is the north side of the schoolroom? Which is the south side? Who sits to the north of you? To the south?

In what direction do the pupils face? On which side of your schoolroom is the teacher's

table? Which sides have no windows? Which sides have no doors?

If a room has a fireplace in the middle of the east side, which side of the room faces the fire?

Suppose the wind is blowing from the north, in what direction wil the smoke go?

In what direction from the schoolhouse is the playground?

What is the first street or road north of the school? The first street or road east? South?

West?

In what direction is your home from the school? The school from your home? The nearest

church from the school? The post office from your home?

LESSON III.

HOW THE STARS SHOW DIRECTION.

You have learned how to tel north, south,

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east, and west by the sun; but how can we tel

these directions at night?

Ask some one to point out to you a group of

seven bright stars in the north part of the sky.

Some people think that this group of stars

looks like a wagon and three horses; others

say that it looks like a plow.

The proper name of the group containing these

seven stars is the Great Bear. The group was

given this name because men at first thought it

looked like a bear with a long tail.

These seven stars are caled the Dipper. It is a

THE GREAT BEAR.

part of a larger group caled the Great Bear.

Find the two bright twinkling stars farthest from its handle. A line drawn through them wil point to another star, not quite so bright, caled the North Star. That star is always in the north; so by it, on a clear night, you can tel the other directions at once.

Write on your slates:

Sailors out on the sea at night often find direction by looking at the North Star.

LESSON IV.

HOW THE COMPASS SHOWS DIRECTION.

But there are times when it is cloudy, and neither the sun nor the stars can be seen. How can we tel direction then?

Have you ever seen a compass? It is a box in

which is a little needle swinging on the top of a

pin. When this needle is at rest, one end of it

points to the north.

As the needle shows where the north is; it is

easy to find the south, the east, or the west.

With the compass as a guide, the sailor, in the

darkest night, can tel in what direction he is

going.

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North, south, east, and west are caled the

chief points of the compass.

A CO MPASS.

Other directions are northeast, halfway

between north and east; northwest, halfway

between north and west; southeast, halfway

between south and east; and southwest,

halfway between south and west.

Write on your slates:

The chief points of the compass are north,

PO INTS O F THE CO MPASS

south, east, and west.

Other directions are northeast, southeast, southwest, and northwest. Sailors find their way over the ocean by the help of the compass.

LESSON V.

QUESTIONS ON DIRECTION.

Your teacher wil give you time to discover answers to these questions. She could tel you,

but it is better to find them out for yourself.

If I go out of doors, how can I find the north? How

can I find it on a starlight night? How can I find it on

pleasant days? How on rainy days? How does a sailor

find the north?

If you were lost and knew your home was north, how

would you find it? Do you know how hunters and

Indians who live a great deal in the woods find out

where the north is? When you are in the woods, notice

the amount of moss on the north side of trees as

IN WHAT DIRECTIO N DO ES

YO UR SHADO W FALL?

compared to that on the south side.

As winter approaches; many of our birds wil want to go to a warmer country; in what

direction wil they fly? Point to where ice and snow have their home. What direction is that?

In what direction does your shadow fal at sunrise? At sunset? At noon? When, during the

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day, is your shadow shortest?

In what direction does your shadow

extend from yourself when it is shortest?

What time of day is noon? How can we

tel when it is noon? When is the sun

highest in the sky?

What may we discover by watching the

direction of the smoke from the

chimneys? What does a vane on a

steeple tel us? What is a north wind? A

south wind? An east wind? A west

WHAT MAY WE DISCO VER BY WATCHING THE

wind?

SMO KE?

What kind of weather may be expected from a north wind? From a south wind? From an

east wind? From a west wind?

LESSON VI.

WHAT THE WINDS BRING.

Comes the north wind,

Flowers sweet the

snowflakes bringing:

west wind offers,

Robes the fields in

Peeping forth from

purest white,

vines and trees;

Paints grand houses,

Brings the butterflies

trees, and mountains

so briliant,

On our window-panes

And the busy,

at night.

humming bees.

Hils and vales the east

Each wind brings his

wind visits,

own best treasure

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Brings them chily,

To our land from

driving rain;

year to year;

Shivering cattle

Blessings many without

homeward hurry,

measure

Onward through the

E'er attend the winds'

darkening lane.

career.

Heat the south wind

---Lillian Cox.

kindly gives us;

Reddens apples, gilds

the pear,

Gives the grape a richer

purple,

Scatters plenty

everywhere.

"Whichever way the wind doth blow.

Some heart is glad to have it so;

And blow it east or blow it west,

The wind that blows, that wind is best."

Write al that you can tel about the wind.

What was the direction of the wind during the last snow-storm? Why is the north wind cold?

Why is the south wind warm?

LESSON VII.

HOW TO TELL DISTANCE.

To tel where a place is, we must know its direction. But this is not al; we must also know

how far it is from us; that is; its distance. To find this out we measure.

You have often heard of an inch, a foot, and a yard. This line is one inch long: Your ruler is twelve inches long, that is a foot. Three lengths of your ruler make a yard. A www.gutenberg.org/files/12228/12228-h/12228-h.htm

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yard stick is three feet long.

With these measures you can tel how long

your slate or your desk is, or how long and

wide the schoolroom is.

The inch, foot, and yard are used for

measuring short distances. But when we wish

to tel the distance between objects far apart,

we use another measure caled a mile. A mile

is much longer than a yard.

Think of some object that is a mile from our

schoolhouse. How long would it take you to

walk that distance?

MEASURING SHO RT DISTANCES.

ORAL EXERCISES.

How many inches long is your slate? How long

is your desk? How many feet long is your

room? How wide is it? What is the distance

around the room? How many feet wide is each

window? Each door? How many yards wide

is the nearest street or road?

About what is the height of the schoolroom?

Of the schoolhouse? Of the talest tree near

by? Of the nearest church spire?

About how long is the longest street in the

MEASURING LO NG DISTANCES.

town where you live? Do you know how many

blocks or squares make a mile? Name the nearest river or creek. Give its direction from the school. In what direction does the water run? Give the direction and distance of the nearest church. What must you know to go to any place?

NOTE.--Have pupils estimate distances by the eye, then verify by actual measurement.

Continue the exercises until the work becomes quite accurate. Correct ideas of distance are necessary in order to understand how large the world is, and how far apart places are on its surface.

LESSON VIII.

PICTURES AND PLANS.

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You al know what a picture is. But do you know what a plan is?

A little boy wanted to show his cousin, who lived some miles away; the shape and size of his house, and how the rooms were arranged. How could he do this?

On a large sheet of white paper, he placed lines of blocks in the form of his house. Then, with a lead pencil, he drew a line on the paper along the sides of the blocks. He next took up the blocks, and there, on the paper, was a plan of his house.

THE PICTURE SHO WS THE O BJECTS.

Here is a picture of a schoolroom. We see desks, the teacher's table, a chair, a clock, globe, and two maps, in the picture. The picture shows these objects as they would appear if we

stood at the door behind the teacher's table and looked in.

This is a plan of the schoolroom, a picture of which is shown above. You see, the plan and

picture are quite different.

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THE PLAN SHO WS WHERE THE O BJECTS ARE.

The picture shows the objects as we see them before us. The plan shows where the objects

are, and their direction from one another.

Now let us see if we can make a plan of the same schoolroom on the blackboard.

The first thing is to measure the sides of the room. We wil suppose the two long sides are

each forty feet long, and the two short sides each thirty feet long. Now we wil draw four

straight lines on the board for the four sides. Of course, the lines must be much shorter than the sides themselves, else our plan wil be too large.

Make one inch in the plan stand for one foot in the room. So the lines for the long sides wil each be forty inches long, and the lines for the short sides thirty inches long.

The next thing is to make spaces in the sides for the door and the windows, and oblongs for the desks. But we must remember that an inch in our plan stands for a foot in the object itself, and therefore we must alow as many inches for the width of doors and windows, and for the

length and width of the desks, as there are feet in the objects themselves. Thus, if the door is three feet wide, we must make it three inches wide in our plan.

And lastly, we wil draw a circle for the globe, and an oblong and square for the teacher's

table and chair, that shal show just where and just how long these objects are.

We have now a plan of the schoolroom. Let us put N. to show the north side of the room, S.

to show the south side, E. to show the east side, and W. to show the west side. We can now

tel the direction of one thing from another in our plan.

LESSON IX.

WRITTEN EXERCISE.

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PICTURE O F SCHO O L GRO UNDS.

Write the answers to the folowing questions, in ful sentences:

What is the name of your school? On what street or road is it? Which side of the street?

Between what streets? In which direction does the building face?

PLAN O F SCHO O L GRO UNDS.

How many rooms has the building? In what part of the building is your room? How large is it?

How many doors and windows? How many seats?

In what direction is the school from your home? How far is it? How long does it take you to walk to school?

EXERCISES IN DRAWING PLANS.

Draw a plan of the schoolroom on your slates. It cannot be drawn on your slates as large as it was drawn on the board. So let one inch stand for ten feet, instead of for one foot; that is, use a scale of one inch for every ten feet. Your plan wil not be as large as mine, but it wil show the position of everything as correctly.

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Draw a plan of the top of the teacher's table, showing two books and an inkstand upon it.

First, measure the sides. Then decide to what scale you wil draw your plan.

Now draw a plan of the schoolhouse and grounds. You must measure not only the house, but

the width and length of the yard. The plan must show the size, shape, and place of everything upon the grounds. (While drawing a plan of this kind, it is better to let the pupils face the north. The top of the plan should be the north side of the grounds.)

Draw a plan of your own room at home, showing the table, bed, chairs, and other objects in

it.

ORAL EXERCISE.

If the shape of a room is shown on the blackboard, what have we drawn? Is a plan the same

as a picture? What is the use of a plan? Mention some things of which plans can be drawn.

NOTE.--It is wrong to teach that the top of a map or plan is always north; as often as not, the bottom is north, in plans especialy.

LESSON X.

GOD MADE THEM ALL.

THE PURPLE-HEADED MO UNTAIN, THE RIVER

RUNNING BY.

Al things bright and

The tal trees in the

beautiful,

greenwood,

Al creatures great and

The pleasant summer

smal,

sun,

Al things wise and

The ripe fruits in the

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wonderful,

garden--

The good God made

He made them every

them al.

one.

Each little flower that

He gave us eyes to see

opens,

them,

Each little bird that

And lips that we might

sings,

tel

He made their glowing

How great is God

colors,

Almighty,

He made their tiny

Who hath made al

wings.

things wel.

The purple-headed

mountain,

The river running by,

The morning and the

sunset,

The twinkling stars on

high;

LESSON XI.

PLAINS.

The floor of our schoolroom is level. The playground is almost, if not quite, level. As you look away from the school, is the land nearly level? Did you ever see a broad extent of nearly level land?

Let us imagine that we are out on a piece of nearly level land, many, many times larger than our playground. Such a broad, nearly level stretch of land is caled a plain.

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SUCH A BRO AD LEVEL STRETCH O F LAND IS

CALLED A PLAIN.

If this plain were covered with rich green grass and beautiful flowers, we should cal it a

prairie. In the summer it is a vast sea of waving grass. On the prairie we might find herds of wild horses and cattle, which feed upon the rich grass. If it were late in the summer, when the grass is dry and crisp, it might catch fire, and we might then see a grand sight--a prairie on fire.

We now come to another plain, miles and miles long, miles and miles wide. No rain fals here, and therefore we see no grass, nor flowers, nor cattle, nor horses, nothing but dry, burning sand, rocks, or gravel. We are in a desert. But we are so thirsty and tired!

No water to drink, no shade from the burning sun! Suddenly, in the midst of the desert, we

come to a beautiful grassy spot. There is a cluster of date-palm trees, and, better stil, a wel or a spring of fresh water. This pleasant spot in the desert is caled an oasis. Here we may quench our thirst, and rest beneath the shade of the trees.

An oasis is a fertile spot in a desert. What does fertile

mean? When do we say land is fertile? When barren?

When desert?

Find a picture of a palm tree, and try to draw it.

If we were realy in a desert, we might see a company

of merchants carrying goods to sel in the countries

they visit. Such a company is caled a caravan. The

goods are packed in bundles, which are carried on

camels' backs. The camel can live for a long time

without drinking, and can carry a heavy load of

merchandise a long distance. It is sometimes caled the

ship of the desert.

THIS PLEASANT SPO T IN THE

DESERT IS CALLED AN O ASIS

Why do travelers use camels to cross the desert? Why

do they not use horses? If you can not find answers to

these questions in your books at home, ask your teacher about them.

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You have seen a smal whirlwind in the street. The leaves flew round and round, the dust

whirled along in clouds. Trees are sometimes torn from the ground, and houses overturned,

by a strong wind.

Now think of a wind-storm in the desert. A loud, rustling noise is heard. Great clouds of fine sand are lifted into the air--clouds which darken the sun! Travelers must at once jump from their camels, cover themselves with their cloaks, and lie flat on the ground.

The poor beasts wil close their eyes and nostrils, and kneel with their backs to the wind until the storm has passed over.

Thankful wil the travelers be if none of them are buried in the sand.

LESSON XII.

HILLS, MOUNTAINS, VALLEYS.

The land is not always level like a plain. In some places it is high and uneven. We al know what a hill is. It is land a little higher than the surrounding country.

Is there a hil near where you live? Let us walk to the top, and stand on its summit. We wil start from the foot or base of the hil. Now we have climbed its steep, rough sides or slopes.

Was the ascent difficult? Is the view from the top fine?

WHAT CAN YO U SEE FRO M THE TO P O F THE HILL?

What can you see from the top of the hil--meadow, river, lake, town? What grow on the hil?

What live on the hil?

Which part of a hil is caled the base, or foot? The slope, or sides? The top, or summit?

Give two names for the lowest part of a hil. Two for the highest part. Two for the part

between the highest and lowest parts.

Parts of the land very much higher than the surrounding country are caled mountains.

Mountains are much higher than hils. Have you ever seen a steeple one hundred feet high? A

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mountain is as high as twenty such steeples, one on the top of the other. How high the

mountains must be!

Some mountains reach away above the clouds. Their white tops seem to touch the sky. A

man on the summit of one saw the clouds beneath his feet, while the sun shone where he

stood. When it lightened he saw the flash far below him.

Is it warm or cold at the tops of mountains? With what are many high mountains covered,

even in summer?

The land between mountains or hils is caled a valley. Is there a valey near here? What do you cal the ground on either side?

Would you like best to live on the mountains or in the valey? Why?

Are mountains of any use?

Yes, hils and mountains are of very great use. They make the earth more beautiful. Tops of

high mountains are so cold that they turn the clouds into drops of water which fal as rain or snow. Then mountains give rise to rivers which make the valeys beautiful with grass and

flowers. Mountains do much good to some countries by keeping off cold winds. They also

give us coal and iron and other minerals which we find so useful.

Here is a picture. What do you cal the very

high land on the right and on the left? The long,

narrow piece of land between the two

mountains?

When you look at this picture you must think

of a real valey between mountains.

Bring pictures of hils and mountains to school;

if you can find them.

If you had a molding-board and a few quarts

of sand; you might represent hils and

mountains with valeys between. Think of a

THINK O F A REAL VALLEY BETWEEN

MO UNTAINS.

real hil while you mold.

Draw on your slate a hil you have seen with a little of the surrounding country.

Write:

A long, narrow piece of land between hils and mountains is caled a valey.

A hil is land a little higher than the country about it.

A mountain is land that rises to a very great height above the country about it.

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LESSON XIII.

RAIN, WIND, AND SNOW.

Watch the pretty

Ah! and I must work

snowflakes fal,

alway,

Some are large and

Life's not meant to

some are smal;

spend in play;

Look, they cover al the

Every moment's fleeting

ground,

fast,

Miles of dazzling white

And our day wil soon

around;

be past;

But this covering, I am

If our work is truly

told,

done,

Keeps the earth from

It wil last though ages

frost and cold.

run.

Of what use is rain? Of what use is snow? Of what use is wind?

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LESSON XIV.

HOW WATER IS CHANGED TO VAPOR.

What happens when a kettle of water is put on a hot stove?

The water gets hot and boils away.

Where does it go? Is it destroyed?

The water is changed, but it is not destroyed. Coal burns, but we do not get rid of it

altogether. It is changed into gas and smoke and ashes.

What is the water changed into?

It is changed to vapor. If we let the kettle remain on the fire long enough, the water it contains wil al pass away as vapor.

Where does the vapor go? The water, though turned into vapor, must be somewhere.

It is floating about in the air of the room, though we cannot see it. The air holds the vapor, just as a sponge holds water.

Heat expands or swels air. Warm air, therefore, can contain more vapor than cold air. On a

warm day there may be many times as much moisture in the air as on a cold day.

Moisten your slate with a damp sponge. Observe the disappearance of the moisture.

Dip your hand in water, and wave it in the air. The water on your hand disappears. Where

has it gone?

When wet clothes are hung on the line, they soon become dry. What becomes of the water in

the clothes?

If we set a plate of water out in the sunshine, what happens? Is the water lost?

The streets and roads were wet and muddy, now they are dry. What has become of the

water? Has it al sunk into the ground?

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Sometimes we see leaves and grass sparkle with water-drops, early in the morning, When the

sun shines out and warms the air; what happens?

Why does vapor rise into the air?

Why does smoke go up? Because it is lighter than air. As vapor is lighter than air; what do you think ought to happen to it?

LESSON XV.

HOW VAPOR IS CHANGED TO WATER,

Heat, as you have learned, changes water into vapor. You must also know that cold turns

vapor back into water again.

Now let us think of the kettle with the boiling

water. You wil notice a little space; quite

close to the spout, where nothing can be seen.

Is there no vapor there?

Yes, there is vapor there, but it cannot be

seen; it is invisible. A little way from the spout

we see something white, like smoke. This is

only the vapor that has been chiled by the

cool air and changed back again into water.

The water is in the form of very fine particles,

and may be caled water-dust.

THINK O F THE KETTLE WITH THE

BO ILING WATER.

Hold a cold plate over boiling water. Observe

how the water-dust gathers into drops that rol down the plate.

You have seen the inside of windows in cold weather covered with moisture. Where does it

come from? Why did it form there? Why does it sometimes run down on the cold pane?

The vapor in our breath turns into water on frosty mornings. Explain this.

Carry a pitcher of ice-water into a room, and notice what takes place. A thin mist at once

gathers on the outside of the pitcher. What takes place among the little drops of mist? What becomes of these larger drops?

Where does the water which colects on the outside of the pitcher come from? Does it come

through the pitcher from the inside? Would the same thing have taken place if some other

cold object had been used instead of a cold pitcher?

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Write out what you have learned about vapor.

LESSON XVI.

DEW, CLOUDS, AND RAIN.

The sun is al the time heating the water on the land and in the sea, and changing it into vapor, which rises in the air. We cannot see the vapor; but it is in the air around us.

If the vapor in the air is suddenly cooled, a strange thing happens. Some of it quickly changes back into water. You have often seen, in the early morning, little drops of water hanging like pearls upon the blades of grass.

Now, where do these drops come from? They come from the air. The vapor in the air floats

against the cold grass and leaves, and is cooled and changed into tiny drops of water. We cal this dew.

Of what use is dew?

If the night is quite cold, the dew wil freeze. It is then caled frost. You have seen the frosty window pane with the beautiful pictures upon it.

Make a picture of the window as you remember it, covered with the pretty things made by

the frost.

WHEN VAPO R RISES HIGH IN THE CO O L AIR.

When vapor rises high in the cool air it is turned into very smal drops of water or minute

crystals of ice, and we can see it floating about in the air. It is then caled a cloud. Almost any clear day you may see clouds form and then seem to melt away.

You have seen on a blue sky, light, fleecy feather-clouds. They are very high up, and it is very cold where they are. You have also noticed the clouds at sunset with their beautiful colors. As the sun sank lower and lower, how did they change, in shape and color?

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When clouds are low down, near the earth, we cal them fogs or mist.

If clouds are cooled, the little particles of water gather into large drops and fal as rain. If the drops should freeze in faling, we would cal them hail.

What shape are the raindrops? Of what use is the rain?

HAVE YO U EVER SEEN SNO WFLAKES THRO UGH A

MICRO SCO PE?

Sometimes, when it is very cold, the moisture in the air freezes before it forms into drops, and fals in the beautiful flakes we cal snow. Have you ever seen snowflakes through a

microscope?

Snow keeps the roots of plants warm. Many plants would die in winter if it were not for the snow. What other uses has snow?

Observe the clouds; fog, rain, snow, dew, frost, and tel what you have noticed.

Write what you have seen or noticed about vapor, clouds, rain, etc.

LESSON XVII.

THE FAIRY ARTIST.

Oh, there is a little artist

Pictures of rushing rivers

Who paints in the cold

By fairy bridges

night hours

spanned;

Pictures for little children

Bits of beautiful

Of wondrous trees and

landscape

flowers!

Copied from elfin land.

Pictures of snow-white

The moon is the lamp he

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mountains

paints by;

Touching the snow-

His canvas the window

white sky;

pane;

Pictures of distant

His brush is a frozen

oceans

snowflake;

Where pretty ships sail

Jack Frost the artist's

by.

name.

LESSON XVIII.

HOW RIVERS ARE MADE.

Have you ever seen a brook or creek? A river? Is there a brook or river near here? Who can

tel where it begins? where the water conies from that fils it? where it goes? Let us try to understand this.

As vapor rises into high, cool air, or is carried with the

air in winds up the sides of mountains, it turns into

water again, and comes faling down as rain.

Now think where the rain that fals on mountains must

go. Some of the water runs off on the surface, down

the mountain slope. Some sinks into the ground, and

runs along in little streams below the surface. It wil

appear again, bubbling out of the mountain side as a

spring. The spring is the beginning of a river.

Did you ever see a spring? Where was it? Was it

shaded by trees? Where did the water come from?

Did you drink from it? Was the water pure and cold?

DID YO U EVER SEE A SPRING?

Where did the water go after leaving the spring?

From the spring flows a tiny, thread-like stream, so smal that we can easily step across it.

This little stream is caled a rill.

Other rils meet this, and form a larger stream, which is caled a brook or creek.

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As the brook flows on, it is joined by other

streams, until, little by little, it becomes a wide and

deep river on which large boats may float. At last,

it finds its way into the ocean.

Where a river begins is its source. The place

where it flows into another body of water is caled its mouth. The land

over which it flows is its bed.

A river has two banks. As we go toward its mouth, the right bank is on our right hand, and

the left bank is on our left.

Do you live near a river? Where does the water come from? In what direction does it flow?

Why does it flow in such direction? Does it wind about much? Does it flow into the ocean, or into another river?

Is the water fresh or salt? What grow on its banks? Near which bank do you live?

Make a picture of a spring, and a brook flowing from it. Draw the tal grass and plants that grow near it.

Write the names of al the rivers you have seen.

Write the following:

Water flowing out of the ground is caled a spring.

From springs flow smal streams caled rils, brooks, or creeks.

A large stream of water flowing through the land is caled a river.

A smal stream of water flowing into a larger one is caled a tributary.

The source of a river is where it begins. The place where it empties into another body of

water is its mouth.

Every river has two banks--a right-hand bank and a left-hand bank.

LESSON XIX.

MORE ABOUT RIVERS.

Let us have another chat about the river. We may fancy that we are folowing it in its course to the sea. We shal then learn for ourselves many things we do not know about rivers.

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We wil begin our journey at its source. Here it is a little ril, formed by water that trickles from a spring, or by the melting of snow.

As it flows on, it is joined by many other little streams, until it grows to be much larger.

There is a large word used for a stream that feeds another stream. Do you know what it is?

The word, is tributary. Tributaries are often caled branches.

Before we leave this part of the river, I wish you to learn another hard word.

You have seen the water run off the roof of a shed. The ridge; or highest part of the roof, divides the rain that fals on it, so that part of the rain flows down the one side, and part of it flows down the other side.

HILLS SEND O FF STREAMS O N BO TH SIDES.

Now, hils, like the roof of a house, send off streams on both sides. When it rains, or the

snow melts, some of the water goes down on one side, some on the other. And that is why

the hils which divide or part the waters of streams are caled a water-parting or water-shed.

Let us now go further down the stream.

Here we see it rushing rapidly down a steep slope. Its waters foam and dash between the

great rocks that lie in the stream. Such places in the river are caled rapids. Can you tel why they are so caled?

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SUCH PLACES ARE CALLED RAPIDS.

The stream flows on. It has now reached a high ledge of rock. Over this it leaps, making a

great foam and noise.

When the water of a river fals over high rocks, it is caled a waterfal or cataract.

You may have seen the Fals of Niagara, the greatest waterfal in the world.

The course of our river is now

through a lower country. The

valey in which it flows spreads

out, and the stream grows

wider and wider. The water

moves slower and slower.

Why is the river swift in some

places, and in others slow?

At length it flows through an almost level country. It is here

widest and deepest. Its course is more winding.

Do you know why it is crooked and winding?

Because on the steep hilside the water runs very rapidly, and is not easily turned aside.

Where the ground is nearly level, it runs slowly, and is easily turned from its course.

LESSON XX.

THE BROOK.

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From a fountain

Blossoms floating,

In a mountain,

Mimic boating,

Drops of water ran

Fishes darting past,

Trickling through the

Swift, and strong, and

grasses;

happy,

So our brook began.

Widening very fast.

Slow it started;

Bubbling, singing,

Soon it darted,

Rushing, ringing,

Cool and clear and

Flecked with shade

free,

and sun.

Rippling over pebbles,

Soon our pretty brooklet

Hurrying to the sea.

To the sea has run.

Children straying

Came a-playing

On its pretty banks;

Glad, our little brooklet

Sparkled up its thanks.

LESSON XXI.

WORK OF FLOWING RIVERS.

Would you like to know more about brooks and rivers--about the work they do?

Notice what happens when it rains. Little tiny streams are formed, which chase each other

down the slopes. See how they cut away the loose soil and carry it off. Notice how muddy

this loose soil makes the water. What becomes of this loose soil, or mud?

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Fil a jar with water. Put in a handful of mud from the nearest stream. Shake the jar, and the water is muddy. Let it stand awhile. What do you notice? The water is clear, and the soil has settled to the bottom.

Folow the streams to the valey where they unite to form a river. When does the load of mud

it carries settle? Here, where the water scarcely moves, we find some of the soil spread out over the ground near the river banks.

You have seen a river overflow its banks. When the water went down, it left a layer of rich mud, which made the soil very fertile.

THESE FERTILE MEADO WS WERE FO RMED O UT

O F THE LO AM.

Have you never seen the low ground on the banks of rivers covered with rich grass and

clover?

Wel, these fertile meadows were formed out of the loam that has been washed down the

streams from the far-off hils and mountains.

Look at the jar again. Which settled first, the coarse material or fine loam? What kind of a deposit wil be made in the upper course of a river? What kind toward the mouth?

High up in the valey, when the river is low, we see pebbles in its bed; lower down, the pebbles are worn into gravel; and as we get stil farther down, we find the gravel ground into sand.

Examine the stones found along the shore of a brook or river. Some are quite smooth and

round. They were not always so, but had sharp edges. Do you know what made them

round?

When there are heavy rains, the rushing water sweeps large stones down the mountain side

and into the valey. As they are carried down the stream, the stones, by rubbing against each other, are smoothed and rounded and ground into pebbles. The pebbles themselves are

ground at last into gravel and fine sand.

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This is what the streams are doing everywhere--plowing deep furrows in the sides of the

mountains, grinding the pebbles and sand into fine soil, and carrying it into the valeys below.

LESSON XXII.

WATERDROP'S STORY.

Patter, patter, fal the raindrops on the brown leaves in the

woods. Mr. Squirrel's bright eyes sparkle as he peeps out

of his queer little home, a hole in the tree; his store of nuts

has been carefuly hidden away.

Splash comes a drop on a leaf just opposite him. Such a

friendly little drop it is, for soon it tels this little woodland

dweler of al its travels.

Let us listen, for we may hear too:

"My home," began the Waterdrop, "is in the

wide blue sea, where I live with many, many

other drops.

"One day as we rode up and down on the big waves, the sun shone down on

us, and we grew warmer. Each little drop felt, 'Oh, if I could only get away

from the other drops, how much cooler I should be!' Then each tiny drop

separated from the others, and grew so smal you could not see it.

"We, of course, grew lighter, lighter than the air. Up, up we rose into the

bright blue sky. When we got pretty high, where the air was cool, we came

closer together again and formed a great fleecy white cloud, that cast its

shadow over everything. Then a friendly wind carried us along, and soon we

left the sea behind. Far below; we could see green fields and waving woods."

"You must have been very happy" said the little squirrel.

"Yes; it was a merry life we led, as we floated hither and thither, playing with

the sun-beams," replied the Waterdrop.

"But we came at last to a purple mountain, and a chil wind began to blow.

How we shivered with the cold! Then we huddled close together to get

warm. We were now heavy again--so heavy that we could not stay up in the air.

"Then,

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'I'm going down to cheer a

'And I wil go!' 'And I!'

flower,'

'And I!'

Cried a little drop of rain;

Cried al the raindrops

'I hear it sigh. It droops its

near.

head

So down we went in merry

As if in weary pain.'

haste

The whole wide field to

cheer.

"The drooping flowers lifted their bright faces to thank the little drops for the cool drink. Even the great tal trees nodded their heads in welcome."

"The grass on the hilside and in the valey must have been grateful, too, for your coming," said the squirrel. "It always looks so fresh and green after a shower. But, tel me, what became of you?"

"I fel where the ground was brown and bare, stopped for a moment, then went down, down into the ground, where al was dark. I met other drops trying to get out, and we went on

together, turning first this way, then that way, til we burst into the sunshine again."

"We rested for a moment in a tiny pool of clear water; then I ran with the rest down the mountain side, slipping over smooth pebbles, and tumbling over sharp rocks, until I found

myself in a deep, swift stream, where plants and trees grew on either bank."

"As I was hurried along, I heard a great roaring noise

made by the river faling over a high ledge of rocks, as

a cataract or waterfal. Suddenly we fel over the rocks

so steep and high that we went leaping and dashing in

al directions. We rose in the air in a fine gray mist, then

sank back again into the foam-covered stream.

"Soon we

were in a

broad,

quiet river,

flowing

past the

grassy hils

and green

pastures.

Then we

came to a

SUDDENLY WE FELL O VER THE

RO CKS

big mil-wheel, upon which we

jumped, and by our weight made it turn over and over, and thus move the

machinery in the mil. Here we were tossed in the air, whirled around, and

at last flung back into the river, where we sailed slowly and quietly as

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before.

"By and by, we saw large boats floating on the water. We passed towns and cities with busy streets and many people; and as our river widened, and we heard the big sea waves dashing

against the shore, we knew our brothers and sisters were singing a welcome home.

"And now farewel, little squirrel. My story is done, and I must hasten to my home in the sea.

Perhaps we shal meet again some day. I may float down to you, a white-winged snowflake,

or patter down as I came this time, a tiny raindrop."

WE PASSED TO WNS AND CITIES.

Write the following:

The water rises from the sea in vapor.

The vapor is turned into clouds, which fal in rain or snow.

The rain forms rivers, which flow back again into the sea.

Thus the water is always going round and round in its long and curious journey--up to the

clouds in vapor, down in rain, back in streams to the place it started from.

LESSON XXIII.

THE RIVER.

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"Oh, tel me, pretty

"And then 'mid

river,

meadowy banks,

Whence do thy waters

I flirted with the

flow?

flowers,

And whither art thou

That stooped with

roaming,

glowing lips

So smoothly and so

To woo me to their

slow?"

bowers.

"My birthplace was the

"But these bright scenes

mountain,

are o'er,

My nurse the April

And darkly flows my

showers;

wave;

My cradle was a

I hear the ocean's roar--

fountain,

And there must be my

O'er-curtained by wild

grave!"

flowers.

"One morn I ran away,

A madcap, noisy ril;

And many a prank that

day

I played adown the

hil!

Where have you seen a river like the one spoken of in the poem? Are rivers born? What is

meant by "My nurse the April showers"? "I flirted with the flowers"? Explain the last stanza.

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LESSON XXIV.

A MAP

A drawing made to show a room, or a house; or the school-yard, or even a vilage, is caled a plan.

Drawings which represent land and water are caled

maps. You may learn from maps where the countries,

and mountains, and rivers, and cities are that you have

seen. It also shows how far places are from one another.

Here is a map showing mountains and rivers. The many

short lines facing each other represent mountains. To

show the very high part of the mountains, the lines are

drawn close to each other, making that part of the map

look dark. The line winding about, like the stream itself,

represents a river. The line, as you see, is made thicker

and thicker toward its mouth. From this you may know

that the river itself becomes broader and broader as it flows toward the sea.

But you must not think that the crooked line on the map is a river, or the lines which face each other are mountains. If you do, you wil learn very little of geography. When you look at these lines, you must think of the real things which they stand for--the lofty mountains, with their covering of forests, and with long, narrow valeys between them; the winding, gently flowing river, bearing boats upon its waters.

LESSON XXV.

FORMS OF LAND AND WATER.

You al know what a pond is. Is there a pond near where you live? Did you ever fish in it?

Did you ever walk round it?

When a stream, on its way to the ocean, flows into a basin or holow in the land, the water

spreads out and fils it. A holow in the land filed with water is caled a lake, or, if it be quite smal, a pond.

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What is a lake made of? What is round it? Suppose some one who never saw a lake were to

ask you what a lake is, what would you say?

What do we find in lakes? Would you not like to sail on a lake?

In the holows among mountains are great numbers of beautiful lakes. In their clear waters

may be seen the mountains, the forests, and the sky, as in a looking-glass. At night the moon and stars may be seen below you as plainly as above.

Here is a picture of a pretty lake in a valey.

You see a river flowing from the hils

beyond. Into what is it flowing? The river

that lets the water into the lake is caled an

inlet.

You see another river that lets the water out

of the lake. This river we cal the outlet of

the lake.

Make a lake on your molding-board, or in

the sand near your home. Represent its inlet

and outlet.

Out in the lake is a little piece of land round which the waters play. We could

not go to this land without crossing the water; the water is on al sides of it.

Such a little piece of land is caled an island.

Did you ever read the story of Robinson Crusoe? You wil remember that he went up a hil in

search of water. When he got to the top of the hil, he saw that he was on an island. How did he know?

Have you ever seen an island? What island was it? Could you sail round it? What was on

every side of it? What grew on it? What is an island?

If there is a brook or lake near your home, how can you make an island?

Opposite is a picture of a river and a lake. Make a map of the same river and lake on your

slate. Notice how the coast or shore of the lake bends in and out.

Write the following:

A lake is water surrounded by land.

The land near the water of a lake is caled its shore.

An island is a little piece of land surrounded by water.

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LESSON XXVI.

MORE ABOUT FORMS OF LAND AND WATER.

MAP O F A PENINSULA.

In the picture we see a narrow strip of land

which extends far out into the water. You wil

PICTURE O F A PENINSULA.

notice that the land has water al round; except

at one place.

What is the name for land that has water on al sides but one? What is a peninsula? An island, as we have learned, is a piece of land with water al round it. Now, sometimes we see a piece of land that has water nearly al round it. This form of land is caled a peninsula. The word peninsula means almost an island.

How would you change this peninsula to an island? What is the difference between a

peninsula and an island?

The narrow neck which joins the peninsula to other land--just as the neck joins the head to the body-is caled an isthmus, which means neck.

Here is

another

picture

which I

wish

you to

look at.

You see

where

PICTURE O F A BAY.

the

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MAP O F A BAY.

shore bends like a bow; and the water runs a

little way into the land.

Can you think of anything else that is bent like this? Yes-a bay-window.

Now, when I tel yon that bay means the same as bow, you can almost guess the name for

this bend in the land. It is caled a bay. You wil easily remember that little word.

A wide opening or bend in the land, into which the water flows, is usualy caled a bay.

Sometimes, when the opening in the bend is long and narrow, it is caled a gulf.

On the

next

page is

shown a

narrow

strip of

water

joining

two

larger

bodies

PICTURE O F A STRAIT.

of

water.

The name given to this narrow passage is

MAP O F A STRAIT.

strait, a word meaning narrow.

As an isthmus connects two bodies of land, so a strait connects two bodies of water.

After a rain make little lakes, rivers, bays, etc. Perhaps you may find some already made.

See whether you can find in the magazines and books at home pictures of gulfs, bays,

peninsulas, etc.

Write the following: A peninsula is land almost surrounded by water.

An isthmus is a neck of land joining two larger bodies of land.

A gulf or bay is a portion of some large body of water extending into the land.

A strait is a narrow passage of water that joins two larger bodies of water.

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LESSON XXVII.

A TRIP TO THE HIGHLANDS.

Uncle Tom had been teling Fred and me about many strange places he had seen. Last of al,

he told us about some high mountains he had climbed. We wanted to climb one very much.

So father said he would go with us up a high hil not far from the city.

Mother did not need to cal us in the morning, for we woke up very early. The sky in the east was bright, and we knew that soon we should see the sun. We wanted to start at once, but

mother said it would be better to have breakfast first.

We put on thick shoes that the stones would not easily cut. Father gave each of us a stout

stick to help us climb. Fred had a knapsack, in which mother put some bread, cold meat,

crackers, and a cup to drink from. In one corner we put some towels.

We were soon outside the city, walking along the road. We passed a vilage, and went

through fields and woods. By and by we could see the land before us rising higher and higher.

We saw no longer such beautiful farms and gardens as we had passed.

In a little while we reached the foot of the hil

and began to ascend. As we went up the

slope, we came to steep, rugged places that

were hard to climb, where we needed our

sticks. The trees were smaler, and there were

many bushes. There were large rocks, too, in

the sides of the hil. At the foot, the weather

was quite warm, but it grew cooler and cooler

the higher we went.

"On the summit at last!" cried Fred, as we

reached the top.

AS WE WENT UP THE SLO PE.

From where we stood, we could see the city

with its little straight streets, that look so

wide when we walk on them. We could

see the house-tops, too, and the church

steeples. Then father showed us the

vilage we passed; and the woods we

went through. But the trees looked like

bushes, and some men at the foot of the

hil looked no larger than the baby.

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Down the mountain, a little way, we

found a spring where the water was

clear and cool. Here we sat down on a

rock, and ate the lunch we had brought.

While we rested, we watched the little

ril that flowed from the spring--

"Blue in the shadow,

Silver in the sun."

Down the hil, it was larger, and we saw

WE CO ULD SEE THE CITY WITH ITS LITTLE

other rils flowing into it. When it

STRAIGHT STREETS.

reached the valey, it was much larger;

and farther down, father said, boats could sail on it.

Before us, in the valey, lay a large sheet

of stil water.

"Oh, how pretty!" exclaimed I.

"Yes, that is a lake," said father. "How

beautiful it looks as the sunlight plays on

its smooth surface! It reflects in its clear

water the sky and the trees around it."

"I can see an island in the lake," said

Fred. "Vessels are sailing al round it."

"Are al islands smal, like that?" he

asked.

"Oh, no!" said father. "Some islands are

hundreds of miles round, and have many

IN THE VALLEY LAY A LARGE SHEET O F STILL

people living upon them."

WATER.

Fred then pointed to a piece of land extending out into the water, and asked whether that,

too, was an island.

"No," replied father, "that is a peninsula. It is land almost surrounded by water. And the narrow neck which joins the peninsula to the mainland is caled an isthmus.

"You see the bend in the land, with the water from the lake running in?" asked father.

"Yes," said Fred.

"That is caled a bay. Around every ocean, which is a much larger body of water, there are many such bays.

"The narrow strip of water, which a boat is just entering, is caled a strait. The strait separates www.gutenberg.org/files/12228/12228-h/12228-h.htm

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the island from the mainland."

Stretching far away to the east was flat, level land, which father caled a plain. Scattered here and there were many farmhouses and quiet vilages. Little bright, sparkling streams wound

their way like silver threads through the green grass of the meadows. It was a lovely scene indeed!

The sun was already low in the west as we made ready to return. As it set--

A wonderful glory of color,

A splendor of shifting light--

Orange and scarlet and purple

Flamed in the sky so bright.

LESSON XXVIII.

SPRING.

Drops of rain and bits of

Violets, in blue and

sunshine

purple,

Faling here and

By the twinkling water

gleaming there,

clear;

Tiny blades of grass

Fair spring beauties, frail

appearing.

and dainty,

Tel of springtime

Tel the story, spring is

bright and fair.

here.

Budding leaves are

Cherry, peach, and

gently swaying,

apple blossoms

Merry glad notes

Scattering fragrance far

sweetly ring;

and wide;

Robins, bluebirds, gayly

Buttercups and pure

singing,

white snowdrops

Tel of happy, pleasant

Tel of gracious, sweet

spring.

springtide.

---Lillian Cox.

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LESSON XXIX.

USEFUL VEGETABLES.

In the heart of a seed buried deep, so

deep, A dear little plant lay fast asleep.

"Wake!" said the sunshine, "and creep to

the light."

"Wake!" said the voice of the raindrops

bright.

The little plant heard, and it rose to see

What the wonderful outside world might

be.

What vegetables grow in your

neighborhood?

Of which do we use the roots as food?

Of which the leaves? Of which the seeds?

Of which the stems or stalks?

Which is the most useful garden

vegetable? There is no common garden

vegetable so highly thought of as the

potato. How are potatoes planted?

Answer the questions in writing so as to

A SPRO UT.

make a little composition about

vegetables.

A VINE BEGINNING TO

GRO W.

LESSON XXX.

USEFUL GRAINS.

Wheat and corn are caled grain because they are smal, hard seeds What other kinds of grain

can you name?

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Which of these grains is used the most? Which makes the choicest

flour?

Some kinds of wheat are sown in the spring. These are caled spring

wheat.

Winter wheat is sown in the fal. A few days of sun and rain, and the

plants spring up like grass, remaining green through the winter.

What color does the wheat turn as it ripens? When it is ripe what is

done with it?

For what is the flour of wheat

used?

RIPE WHEAT.

What is sometimes done with the stalks, or straw?

Indian corn is one of the most useful of plants. Do you

know why it is caled Indian corn? It is because the

Indians first raised it.

When is corn planted? How is the land prepared for

planting? What is done to the corn while the plants are

smal? When does it ripen? How tal does it grow?

What is the stem

of the corn

caled? What

are the flowers

HARVESTING WHEAT IN THE

on the stalk of

WEST.

corn caled? On

what do the grains of corn grow?

What use is made of the green stalks and leaves? What

use is made of the ripe grain? For what are corn-husks

largely used?

Sweet corn, if boiled when green, is an excelent

vegetable. It is preserved by canning.

A large cornfield, with its tal, straight stalks, covered

SEVERAL KINDS O F GRAIN.

with green shining leaves and crowned by flowers, is a

very pleasant sight.

Corn is sometimes caled the national emblem. What does emblem mean?

What use is made of oats; barley, rye, and buckwheat? Some of these grains are useful in

two or three ways.

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There is another grain which we find on almost every

table. It is rice. The rice plant, when growing,

resembles wheat; but, unlike wheat, it needs a great

deal of moisture. So the rice-grower sows it in fields

which he can flood or drain at wil.

Do you know what people live on rice without any

meat at al? Ask your teacher to tel you how rice is

raised in China and Japan.

ANO THER GRAIN WHICH WE

You ought to find something to tel your teacher and

FIND O N ALMO ST EVERY TABLE.

classmates about the grains.

Perhaps you would enjoy drawing some of the grains you have seen.

Choose one of the grains, and write what you have Learned about it from conversation and

observation.

We plow the fields, and scatter

The good seed on the land,

But it is fed and watered

By God's almighty hand.

He sends the snow in winter,

The warmth to swel the grain,

The breezes and the sunshine,

And soft refreshing rain.

LESSON XXXI.

FRUITS.

Name some trees upon which grow things to eat. What do we cal such trees?

What fruit trees have you seen? What do we cal the

place where many fruit trees grow?

Did you ever pick berries? What makes it hard to pick

blackberries?

Name fruits that grow about here. Which grow on

trees? Which on bushes? Which on vines?

Mention the different uses of these fruits.

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The orange is one of the most delicious and

wholesome of fruits. It grows only in the warmer parts

of our country. In winter as wel as in summer, the

orange trees are loaded with golden fruit and fragrant

blossom. The blossoms are white, and are very

beautiful.

Name other fruits that grow in warm parts of the

country.

People who live in cold countries need such food as

wil make them warm. What kinds of food are best in

THE O RANGE TREES ARE

LO ADED WITH GO LDEN FRUIT.

cold countries? What people live mainly on fish and the

flesh of animals? Do any fruit trees grow in very cold

countries?

What kinds of food are best in hot countries? The people cannot eat fatty food, for that

would heat the body. Do we find in such countries grain, vegetables and cooling fruits for the people to live upon?

Write answers to some of the questions asked in the lesson, so as to make a composition about fruits.

LESSON XXXII.

USEFUL PLANTS.

What plant supplies us with much of our clothing? Name articles of clothing made of cotton.

Did you ever see a field of cotton? In the summer the young plant is covered with pretty,

pale-yelow flowers. In the autumn you see the pod or bol which contains the cotton.

As the pod ripens, it bursts open. The cotton-field is now a

pretty sight--the bright green leaves, yelow blossoms, and

snowy cotton al mingled together. Form a picture in your mind

of a field of cotton in bloom.

The cotton is now picked. The first thing is to separate it from

its seed. This is done by a machine caled a cotton-gin.

Now it is ready to be pressed in great

bales and sent to market. It wil, at last,

go to the cotton mils and be spun into

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thread, then woven into muslin, calico,

etc.

Are the seeds of any use? They contain a

great deal of oil, which is pressed out by

machinery. What is the name of this oil?

What use is made of it?

There is another plant from which clothing

is made.

Do you know what plant linen is made

FLAX IS A

SMALL

from? Linen comes from the flax plant.

PLANT.

Flax is a smal plant which grows two or three feet high, bearing

on the top a bunch of pretty blue flowers. A field of flax in

YO U SEE THE PO D O R

BO LL

bloom is a very pretty sight.

The flax does not grow in a pod like cotton. The stalk of the plant is covered with a bark, or skin, containing fibers. These fibers are spun into thread, which is woven into a cloth caled linen.

The seeds are used for making an oil caled linseed oil. For

what is linseed oil used?

Do you think people who live in hot countries need the same

kind of clothing as those who live in cold countries?

What kind of clothing should you think was needed in cold

countries? Would such clothes be comfortable in hot countries?

There is a plant that

yields no food, drink, or

clothing, yet it is used in

A PLANT THAT YIELDS

nearly every country in

NO FO O D.

the world. Can you tel

its name?

Every one has seen it growing. It is tobacco.

Do you think the tobacco plant is as useful as the

cotton and flax plants?

Everybody eats sugar. Did you ever see a table set for

supper without a sugar bowl?

The sugar in common use in this country is made

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chiefly from sugar-cane. The sugar-cane is a tal plant

which looks much like Indian corn when growing. It is

caled the sugar-cane because it is filed with the sweet

juice that is made into the sugar.

When the stalks are cut they are taken to a sugar mil.

Here they pass between great rolers which press out

the juice. The liquid is then boiled until it turns to sugar.

Much sugar is made from the sap of the sugar-maple

tree. In the early spring the sap begins to rise. A hole is

bored in the tree and a tube inserted, through which the

sap passes to a bucket or other vessel placed to

receive it. The sap is boiled in large kettles and

becomes syrup. More boiling turns the syrup into

sugar.

Write what you have learned of cotton and linen.

SUGAR-CANE IS A TALL PLANT.

LESSON XXXIII.

FOREST TREES.

In your walks what things please you the most? Is it not the trees? Trees are very useful to us, and we ought to be very grateful for them.

Name some trees along the streets and in the parks. Are they useful to us, especialy on a hot day? Why? Then what kind of trees do we cal them? (Shade.) Which of these are the first to

put on their green dresses in the spring? Which are the brightest in autumn?

Name some trees that grow in the woods.

Name a tree whose wood is dark. A tree whose wood

is light. A tree whose wood is hard. A tree whose

wood is soft.

Name some trees that are valued for the color and

hardness, or the beautiful grain, of their wood.

What kind of wood are the desks made of? The

teacher's table?

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What kinds of wood are used in making chairs?

tables? pianos? windows? floors?

If we wish to make a carriage, omnibus, cart, or

wagon, which wood should we use? Why?

From which trees do we get lumber for building?

Can you name a wood which is very hard and tough,

and is used in building ships?

What do we cal many trees together, like these?

A SHADY STREET.

What is Arbor Day? Why need we plant trees?

We plant tie spire that out-

towers the crag,

We plant the staff for our

country's flag,

We plant the shade, from the

hot sun free--

We plant al these when we

plant the tree.

What do we plant when we

plant the tree?

We plant the houses for you

and me.

We plant the rafters, the

shingles, the floors,

We plant the studding, the laths,

the doors,

The beams and siding, al parts

that be--

We plant the house when we

plant the tree.

What do we plant when we

plant the tree?

A thousand things that we daily

GREAT TREES

see.

O F

CALIFO RNIA.

There are trees much larger than any we find growing here. I am sure you must have heard of www.gutenberg.org/files/12228/12228-h/12228-h.htm

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the great trees of California. Some of them are one hundred feet around, and nearly four

hundred feet high,--twice as high as a very tal steeple. In one of these trees, if holowed out, a large family might live.

In your rambles in the woods, notice and examine the trees which you see. Learn to know the trees so that you can cal them by their proper names.

Draw and paint some of the objects noticed; as grains, vegetables, trees, etc. You wil enjoy this very much, and it wil help you to see these things better.

LESSON XXXIV.

FLOWERS

A flower is a weak and tiny thing; but there are

many flowers, and by helping together they cover

the earth with beauty and fil the air with sweetness.

They seem to have been made to give us pleasure.

It wil be easy and useful to learn something about

the flowers that grow where you live. How many

flowers can you mention by name? Which do you

know at sight? Where would you go to find them?

Would you find them al growing in the same place? Which can live only in wet

places? Which thrive best where there is but little moisture?

If we take a walk in the fields in the early spring, which flowers shal we be

likely to see? Which later? What color are they? Which are fragrant? Which

most beautiful? Which would you like for your flower vase? Which would you like to plant

and care for in a box of earth or a garden-bed?

Can you find and name the parts of a plant--root, stem, leaves, bud, flower? Learn the uses of each part.

Here are some pretty verses on "Spring and the Flowers." Perhaps you wil commit them to memory.

In the snowing and the

"Where is Winter with

blowing,

his snowing?

In the cruel sleet,

Tel us, Spring," they

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Little flowers begin their

say.

growing

Then she answers, "He

Far beneath our feet.

is going,

Going on his way.

Softly taps the Spring

and cheerly:

"Poor old Winter does

"Darlings, are you

not love you,

there?"

But his time is past;

Til they answer, "We

Soon my birds shal sing

are nearly,

above you--

Nearly ready, dear.

Set you free at last."

LESSON XXXV.

WHAT IS NECESSARY TO MAKE PLANTS GROW.

Plants do not grow in winter. Can you tel why? Plants do not grow

in hot places caled deserts. Can yon think of any reason for this?

What two things are necessary to make plants grow? At what time

of the year can they get these?

If a country has a great deal of heat and rain; what can we be sure

of about its trees and grass and flowers?

There are places that have rain enough, but very little heat. How do

you suppose the trees grow there?

You may get information about plants and things by seeing for

yourself, by asking others, and by reading books.

Write the names:

IF A CO UNTRY

HAS A GREAT

DEAL O F HEAT

Of some grains that we use for food.

AND RAIN.

Of some vegetables that we use for food.

Of two plants from which clothing is made.

Of woods used in making furniture.

Of woods used in building our houses.

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LESSON XXXVI.

SUMMER RAIN.

Oh, gentle, gentle summer

Come thou, and brim the

rain!

meadow streams,

Let not the silver lily pine,

And soften al the hils with

The drooping lily pine in vain,

mist,

To feel that dewy touch of

thine,

Oh, faling dew! From

To drink thy freshness once

burning dreams

again,

By thee shal herb and

Oh, gentle, gentle summer

flower be kissed;

rain!

And earth shal bless thee yet

again,

In heat the landscape

Oh, gentle, gentle summer

quivering lies,

rain!

The cattle pant beneath the

tree;

Through parching air and

purple skies

The earth looks up, in vain,

for thee;

For thee--for thee it looks in

vain,

Oh, gentle, gentle summer

rain!

LESSON XXXVII.

THE PARTS OF ANIMALS.

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wild.

What animals are found where you live?

Which are domestic? Which wild?

Which of these

animals feed

upon grass?

TIGER'S FEET.

grains? fruits?

flesh?

You know what sharp claws a cat can put out when it

SEIZING CLAW.

pleases. What use does the cat make of its claws?

How does a cat's paw differ from a dog's? How does a dog seize its prey?

Compare a duck's bil with an owl's. What use does

the duck make of its broad flat bil? The owl, of its

sharp hooked bil?

How do the bils of the hen and the duck differ? Would

a bil fitted for pecking be as useful to the duck as its

own bil?

HEN'S FO O T.

Can you draw a picture of a duck's foot and a hen's

foot? For what does each use its feet?

Would broad web-feet be as useful to the hen as

slender toes?

What kind of feet has the sheep? For what are its feet

only used? Could a sheep use feet like those of a cat

or a hen?

DUCK'S FO O T.

You see each animal has parts wel fitted for the life it

leads.

LESSON XXXVIII.

THE COVERING OF ANIMALS.

Name two animals covered with fur.

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Two covered with hair. Two covered with feathers.

What do we cal the covering of a sheep? Of a pig? Of what use is hair to animals?

What covering has an oyster? A lobster? A turtle? Of what use is it to them?

The duck's feathers are covered with an oily coating, which keeps them from getting wet. Are the feathers of the hen so covered? Why?

Suppose a squirrel's covering were like that of a turtle's, what would result?

What would result if a bird had scales instead of feathers? You see that each animal has that covering which suits its habits best.

LESSON XXXIX.

USES OF ANIMALS.

What domestic animals are used for food?

What wild animals are used for food?

From what animals do we get beef? pork? mutton?

veal?

What birds and fowls are used for food? What fishes?

From what

animal do we

WHAT DO MESTIC ANIMALS ARE

get wool? How

USED FO R FO O D?

is wool taken

from the sheep? What articles of dress are made of

wool?

Name the animals whose skins are used to make

leather. How is leather prepared? Did you ever see a

tannery? What do they do there?

FRO M WHAT ANIMAL DO WE

GET WO O L?

From what animals do we get furs?

What is silk?

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Silk is made by little worms caled

silkworms. When the worm is fuly

grown, it spins round itself a smal bal of

silk, caled a cocoon. If this cocoon

were left to itself, the worm would

change to a moth, and the moth would

eat its way out of this little house. But

this, of course, would cut the little

threads and spoil the silk. As soon,

therefore, as the cocoon is made, it is

THE SILKWO RM AND MO TH.

put into hot water to kil the worm. In

this way the silk is saved.

Almost every part of the cow is made use of. For what is the flesh used? What use is made of the hoofs? horns? hair? What is done with the skin? What other uses has the cow?

What animal shows the most affection for his master?

Mention some kinds of dogs.

You may have seen a dog caled the St. Bernard. He is large, with long curly hair. In the Alps mountains, where traveling is dangerous, the St. Bernard dogs have saved many lives. Who

use their dogs, as we use horses, to draw their sledges?

Which is the most useful animal to man?

Draw and paint some of the animals spoken of in the lesson.

Write the names:

Of animals useful for food.

Of animals which work for man.

Of animals useful to us for clothing.

Of birds and fowls used for food.

LESSON XL.

THE SIGNS OF THE SEASONS.

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What does it mean when the

What does it mean when the

bluebird comes

crickets chirp,

And builds its nest, singing sweet

And away to the south the

and clear?

robins steer?

When violets peep among blades

When apples are faling, and

of grass?--

leaves grow brown?--

These are the signs that spring is

These are the signs that autumn

here.

is here

What does it mean when berries

What does it mean when days are

are ripe?

short?

When butterflies flit, and

When leaves are gone, and

honeybees hum?

brooks are dumb

When cattle stand under the

When fields are white with drifted

shady trees?--

snow?--

These are the signs that summer

These are the signs that winter

has come.

has come.

LESSON XLI.

THINGS FOUND IN THE EARTH.

The earth contains many things that are of great value to us. These we must find and dig out.

The coal we burn in our grates to warm us; iron, from which so many useful things are made; gold, silver, tin, lead, and copper,--al come out of the earth.

But these are not al the valuable things hidden away in the earth.

From salt wels we get a great deal of the salt used on our tables. From oil wels is obtained the oil we use in our lamps to give us light. Diamonds which sparkle so beautifuly, and the stone we use in building, are also taken from the earth.

Coal, iron, gold, silver, lead, tin, copper,

mercury, and salt are caled minerals.

The opening dug in the earth from which

minerals, except stone, are taken; is caled a

mine.

One of the most useful of minerals is coal. Did

you ever stop to think how much hard work

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coal does for us? It grinds our wheat, it

weaves our cloth, it carries us by sea and by

land over the earth. Hardly any labor can be

done without coal.

You have noticed that some coal burns with a

great deal of flame and smoke. That is caled

soft or bituminous coal. That hard, clean-

looking coal, which burns with little blaze, yet

gives out such great heat, is anthracite coal.

Coal has many uses. Mention al you can think

of. From which kind is gas obtained, hard or

O IL WELLS

soft coal?

What is coal? Some day you wil be able to understand how coal was made, and how it got

deep down in the earth.

What article used with food is found in mines? Does al salt come out of the mines? How is the salt made that is not found in mines?

There are salt mines where men, women, and children live al their lives, and never see sun or sky. Many great rooms and galeries, with tal pilars to hold up the roof, are cut out of the salt. When lighted up with torches, they glitter as if studded with precious stones. It is like a fairy palace.

Some minerals are caled metals. Iron, gold, silver, copper, tin, and mercury are metals.

Iron is the most useful of al metals. Did you ever think what we

should do without this hard, strong metal? The folowing lines

tel some of the uses of iron:

Iron vessels cross the ocean.

Iron engines give them motion;

Iron pipe our gas delivers,

Iron bridges span our rivers,

Iron horses draw our loads,

Iron rails compose our roads;

Iron houses, iron wals,

Iron cannon, iron bals,

Iron lightning rods on spires,

Iron telegraphic wires,

Iron hammers, nails, and screws,

Iron everything we use.

IRO N MINE.

Steel is iron made very hard. Knives, axes, hatchets, and other

tools are made of steel. Many little things are made of steel. Mention some of them.

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Which is the most valuable of al metals? Is al the gold made into money? Is money made of

pure gold? Why? Name articles of ornament made of gold. Articles of use. Are gold

watches, chains, and rings usualy made of pure gold? Why? What do you cal the man who

makes these articles?

CASTING IRO N FRO M THE O RE.

Silver is the whitest and most lustrous of al the metals. What does "lustrous" mean? Is iron lustrous? Are silver articles usualy made of pure silver? Why?

Silver and gold are found among the mountains in the west. Sometimes they are dug out of

the ground. Sometimes they are found in rocks, and the rocks must be broken up before they

can be taken out.

SO METIMES MEN WASH DO WN THE HILLS.

Sometimes men wash down the hils with streams of water in order to get at the silver or gold among the rocks.

Gold and silver are caled the precious metals because they do not rust, and on account of their scarcity.

Tin is white and bright, but too soft to make articles which shal be light and strong.

Therefore, thin plates of iron are dipped into melted tin. The tin adheres to the iron and makes www.gutenberg.org/files/12228/12228-h/12228-h.htm

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it bright like tin itself.

A thin sheet of iron, covered with tin, is caled tin-plate. It is of this that our tin cups, pans, and kitchen utensils are made. A tin cup is realy made of iron.

Lead is a very heavy metal. It is so soft that it can be cut with a knife. It is used in making shot, and water pipes.

Do you know how shot is made? Did you ever see a shot-tower? Smal shot is made by

dropping melted lead through a sieve in rapid motion, from the top of a high tower. The drops fal into a vessel of water below. They are next polished and made black, and then are ready for sale.

You think, I suppose, that the lead pencil with which you write is made of lead. It is not made of lead, but of graphite, which is a kind of coal.

Copper is softer than iron, but harder than lead. It wil not rust. Cooking vessels are often made of copper.

Zinc is another valuable metal, and is almost the color of tin. Brass is made by mixing copper and zinc together.

Mention some articles made of brass.

Write five lines about tin.

Write five or more lines about coal.

Write what you know of iron, gold, silver, copper, lead.

LESSON XLII.

MORE ABOUT THINGS FOUND IN THE EARTH.

We have seen that there are many kinds of metals.

There are also many kinds of stone. Those which are

strong and do not crumble by exposure are useful for

building. The place from which stones are taken for

building is caled a quarry.

The more common stones are granite, sandstone;

limestone, marble, and slate.

We wil first examine a piece of granite.

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How hard and firm it is! What a beautiful clean surface

when polished!

Granite is used for steps, for paving streets, and for

sidewalk curbings. Are houses ever built of granite?

Can you think of other uses of granite?

Why is granite used for these purposes? It is easily

shaped. It is hard enough to give strength. It is

enduring. What does "enduring" mean?

This is a piece of sandstone, made of little grains of

sand. It wil crumble more easily than granite. What

does "crumble" mean? Brownstone, used in building, is

a kind of sandstone.

A GRANITE Q UARRY

And this is the common gray limestone of which lime used in building is made. The large oven in which lime is burned is caled a lime-kiln. Did you ever see one? Can you tel how the lime is made?

Here are three pieces of marble. This piece is pure white. This is colored. It is marked by many strange forms, as you see in your mantel-pieces and table-tops. In this piece, you see many colored spots--mottled it may be caled.

Marble is beautiful when polished.

In what different ways have you seen marble used?

What parts of furniture are sometimes marble? Why is

it suitable for this? Is marble ever used for building

houses? Do you think it would be good for that

purpose? Why? Which, do you think, is the best of al

building stones? Why?

Marble and granite are the most beautiful and enduring

of al building stones.

Chalk is a variety of limestone. Could it be used as a

A MARBLE Q UARRY.

building stone? Is chalk harder or softer than other

stone?

You need not to be told the name of this dark stone. You could not get along wel in school

without slate. Slate is easily split into thin plates, and has a smooth, firm surface.

Slate is used to write on. It is used in house building. What part of a house is sometimes

slate? Think of other uses. Why is it useful for these purposes?

We must not forget brick in our talks about things that come out of the ground. Brick is not found in the earth, as the metals and stone are found; but it is made of clay, which is itself a www.gutenberg.org/files/12228/12228-h/12228-h.htm

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part of the ground.

Have you ever seen a brick-yard? What are some of the uses of bricks? What is the man

caled who builds houses of bricks?

Is glass taken out of a mine or quarry? No; but glass is made from sand; which is also a part of the ground.

In laying brick or stone, the mason uses mortar. Mortar is made chiefly of lime. Lime is made of stone which comes out of the ground.

If possible, visit mines and quarries. Take careful notice of al you see, and on your return to school tel what you have learned.

LESSON XLIII.

HOW PEOPLE LIVE AND WHAT THEY ARE DOING

Can you think of anything used in building houses that does not come from the earth?

Do al people have large, fine houses of brick or stone to live in? What is a tent?

WIGWAMS.

A wigwam? Who live in huts? Did you ever hear of people who live in snow houses?

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DID YO U EVER HEAR O F PEO PLE WHO LIVE IN

SNO W HO USES?

In some places houses are built of bamboo. Bamboo is a kind of cane that grows in warm

countries.

HO USES BUILT O F BAMBO O .

What building is now going up in this place? Tel the use of stone, brick, mortar, iron, tin, lead, and glass in building the house. Where and how are they obtained?

We could not live without food. We must also have

clothes to wear and houses to live in. Besides these,

we need schools, books, and churches, which make us

wiser and better. Now, if you think a little, you can

name many other things which we need to make our

homes beautiful. To supply us with al of these things,

men must do many different kinds of work.

Where does the food we eat come from?

We get most of it from plants. Wheat, corn, peas, and

beans are seeds of plants. Almost al our bread is

made from wheat. Beets, turnips, and radishes are

roots of plants. Lettuce and cabbage are the leaves of

plants.

WHO LIVE IN HUTS?

Apples,

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peaches, pears, and other fruits grow on

plants. Al these we use for food.

Plants also supply us with material for clothing.

Some clothes are made from cotton; cotton

grows in the pod of a plant. Some clothes are

made from linen; linen comes from flax, which

is a plant. Hats are made from straw; straw is

the stem or stalk of plants.

Now, these plants, which supply us with so

much of our food and clothing, do not grow of

O UR BREAD IS MADE FRO M WHEAT.

themselves.

The ground must be plowed, the seeds planted and taken care of while growing. So, outside

the city, you may see a great many people at work raising grain, vegetables, and other plants.

This occupation we cal agriculture or farming; the people we cal farmers.

Animals, as wel as plants, furnish much of our

food. Al meat comes from animals. We get

milk from cows. From milk we make butter

and cheese.

Animals also supply us with clothing. Many

articles of dress are made of wool. Wool, you

know, grows on the sheep. Shoes and kid

gloves are made of leather. Leather is made

from the hides of cows; sheep, oxen, and

goats.

But animals could not live and grow if people

did not carefuly raise them. In the country,

yon may see flocks of sheep and herds of

cows and oxen feeding on the fresh sweet

grass of the pastures. Those animals are caled

stock. The business of those who raise them is

HERDS O F CO WS AND O XEN FEEDING.

caled stock-raising.

Most farmers raise cows, horses, and other animals. Which land does the farmer use for

pasture? What is a pasture? What is a meadow?

Grazing means feeding on grass. What animals have you seen grazing? Does a dog graze? A

cow?

Mountains, so rough and rocky, are not good for farms and gardens. But many of them

contain coal, on which milions of people depend for heat and light. In mountains, too, we find iron, which is more useful to us than gold and silver.

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To get these, thousands of men are at work in

places caled mines. A mine is like a great cavern.

There is neither sun nor sky. Torches and lamps

give the only light the miners have to see by. The

air is damp and close. I suppose you would not

like to work in such a place. Yet great numbers of

persons are employed in mining.

How is coal taken out of a mine? What are the

dangers of coal-mining? Try to find answers to

these questions for yourself. If necessary, your teacher wil help you.

In some parts of the country are forests of pine, oak, and other trees. Some of these forests are so large we might travel for days or weeks through them. From trees we get lumber.

Lumber is needed for building houses and ships, and for furniture. So a great many men are

employed in cutting down trees and preparing the wood for use. This is caled lumbering.

The lumbermen go into the woods in winter, and build themselves little huts to live in. Al

through the winter months they work in the woods from sunrise to sunset, feling the best trees and cutting them into logs. Then they haul them over the snow-covered ground to the frozen

streams, and pile them upon the banks.

Here the logs must rest til the snow and ice

have melted and the streams are ful. Then

they are floated down to the great saw-mils;

and cut up into boards, laths, shingles, and

other kinds of lumber.

What is a forest? Name some forest trees

that grow near your home.

The

sea yields much that we eat. Some

parts abound in codfish, mackerel,

and herring. Sardines, the little fish

that come in boxes, are also found in

the sea. It is the business of

thousands of people who live near the ocean to catch

fish, salt them, and pack them, to send to those who

want them for food.

IT IS THE BUSINESS O F

Have you ever seen the ocean, or eaten any of its fish?

THO USANDS O F PEO PLE.

Name some fishes found in fresh water.

Name some kinds of fishes found in waters near where you live. How may they be caught?

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LESSON XLIV.

MORE ABOUT WHAT PEOPLE ARE DOING.

In the city or town we shal find many of the people busy about something else than the

occupations we have learned. What do you suppose it is?

If you go about the city, you wil see large buildings several stories high, with long rows of windows, and great smoking chimneys. These are mils or factories, ful of machines in motion doing their work almost like human beings.

The people who work in them make almost everything that is needed for our use. Wheat is

changed into flour; cotton, into thread, fine muslins, and pretty calicoes; leather, into boots and shoes; iron and steel, into plows, stoves; and cutlery; lumber, into wagons, carriages, and al kinds of furniture. Other articles which we must not forget are elegant jewelry, al sorts of ornaments for parlors, and beautiful toys which you admire so much.

It would take a long time to name a smal part

of the things made in the busy mils and

factories; but think of the articles used in your

home, and you may be sure they are

manufactured articles. You see,

manufacturing gives work to many thousands

of persons.

What is cutlery? Name some articles of

cutlery.

We need many things which we do not

produce. Other people need things which they

BUSY MILLS AND FACTO RIES.

do not produce. How can each obtain what he

needs? By exchanging one thing for another. This exchange of goods, or buying and seling

them for money; gives rise to another occupation caled trade, or commerce. So many people spend their time buying and seling grain, vegetables, clothing, boots and shoes, or in sending them to places where they are needed.

On al the large rivers and lakes you may see boats going up and down, carrying goods from

one part of the country to another.

Can you think how goods are carried from place to place where there are no rivers? In

countries where few people live, goods are often carried in wagons and on the backs of

animals.

I wonder how many people have to work to get food and clothing for us. Make a list of al

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the occupations you can think of. Perhaps you can think of other occupations we have not

named. Is dressmaking an occupation? Teaching? Which occupation would you prefer?

Why?

If you think, perhaps you can tel why men do different kinds of work. What people do to

make a living, depends very much upon the place they live in. For men almost always do that kind of work that pays them best for their labor.

Those who live where the land is rich and level wil raise grain to make flour, or cotton and flax to make clothing. Some people among the mountains work in the mines. Some keep

cows for their milk and butter, and sheep for their wool; for the hils and many of the

mountain sides afford excelent pasture. People who live near the sea wil be apt to catch fish along the coast, or engage in trade upon the water.

Employments in the city differ widely from those in the country. Here, as we have learned,

most people make their living by working in factories, or as merchants in buying and seling goods which come from al parts of the world.

Al people do not live in the same way. Some people have no churches, schools, books, or

factories.

What do people who live in this way eat? What do they wear? How do they spend their

time?

LESSON XLV.

A REVIEW LESSON.

What kind of work is done by the people among whom you live? Are they farmers? How

does the farmer make his living? Where does he sel the things which he raises? Where does

he buy his sugar and tea and other things which he needs?

Do you live in a city? What are the chief occupations of the people? Do they work in shops

or mils or factories?

Name some mils or factories in or near your city. What articles are made there? What

manufactured articles are in the schoolroom? At home? What do you cal the men who make

these articles?

What kinds of goods are sold in the stores? What is a grocery store? A dry-goods store? A

shoe store? Where did the things in these stores come from? Which were made in your city?

Which were brought from other places?

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What railroads or canals are in the city? Do boats come to the wharves? What do the boats

or railroads take away? What do they bring in return?

Write the following:

Farmers raise

(write the names of al the things you can think of).

Miners dig

out of the earth.

Quarrymen dig

from the quarries.

A shoemaker makes

.

A blacksmith makes

.

Merchants buy and sel

.

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